Background: Thyroid gland a brownish red, highly vascular endocrine gland consisting of two lateral lobes connected by an isthmus.It lies in front of the second, third and fourth tracheal rings.It is one of the commonest glands well known for its developmental anomalies, ranging from common to rare ones.The thyroid surgeon must have full knowledge of the anatomy of the thyroid gland, including all of its embryological, congenital, or acquired variations.Levator glandulae thyroideae (LGT), the persistent part of thyroglossal duct (fibromusculoglandular) stretches from the pyramidal lobe or upper border of isthmus of thyroid gland to the body of the hyoid bone, usually on the left side.Presence of the pyramidal lobe (thyroid tissue remnant of embryological origin located in the pretracheal region between the isthmus and the hyoid bone), may impact completeness of thyroidectomy.These variations will help the surgeons in planning thyroid surgeries in a better and safe way.Materials and Observations: Dissection was carried out routinely in 34 cadavers of both sexes in which 2 cadavers presented with LGT.In one cadaver LGT was extending from the left lobe of thyroid gland to hyoid bone.In the other cadaver in addition to the LGT, abnormal extent of the pyramidal lobe (PL).Thus accounting for an incidence of 5.80% variation, both the variations were noted in one male and one female cadavers. Conclusion:In the present study occurrence of thyroid anomalies (morphological variations) such as pyramidal lobes along with LGT is vital, while dealing with thyroid surgeries in the neck region to avoid iatrogenic injuries during complete removal of the gland tissue.Knowledge of embryology of thyroid gland is vital as complex underlying embryology produces substantial anatomic variations both in thyroid bed and elsewhere in the neck and mediastinum.

Introduction: MBBS is a dream to cherish for all students.It is a course which is respected globally.Medical course is perceived as stressful by many of the undergraduates all over the world.They join the course at an early age without awareness of the details of curriculum, the approaches to be followed for theoretical understanding and acquiring practical skills and developing right attitude to be a good humane doctor.Aims and objectives: To know the awareness of MBBS students about their knowledge of it as a profession and their attitude to know the surrounding atmosphere and approach of students while pursuing the course.Material and methods: This is a retrospective, observational study started after taking the approval of Institutional Ethical Committee of Government Medical College, KADAPA.The material for the study consisted of

Placenta is a feto maternal organ of pregnancy, which is vital for normal growth and development of embryo. Fetal well being depends mainly on the adequate function of placenta. Any pathological processes underlying Pregnancy such as hypertension may reflect on placenta in a significant way. Hence the present study was undertaken to evaluate the morphometrical changes in different severity of hypertensive pregnancies. 140 placentas from newborns of mothers (Control-G1: 35, GH-G2: 35, PE-M-G3: 35, PE-S-G4: 35) were obtained for placental morphometry i.e placental weight, diameter, thickness, volume, circumference and statistically analyzed. The mean placental weight was found to be 424.86 +/- 75.005 gms in G1, 384.29 +/- 75.269 gms in G2 and 375.71 +/- 78.000 gms in G3, 228.57 +/- 102.387 gms in G4. The mean placental diameter was 19.08 +/- 1. 87 cm in G1, 17.37 +/- 1. 27 cm in G2, 15.47 +/- 2.40 in G3, 13.18 +/- 2.52 cm in G4. The mean placental thickness was observed 2.46 +/- 0.56 cm in G1, 2.34 +/- 0.48 cm in G2, 2.11 +/- 0.40 in G3, 2.04 +/- 0.39 cm in G4. The mean placental volume was 363.00 +/- 87.04 ml in G1, 310.57 +/- 70.99 ml in G2, 288.71 +/- 86.44 in G3, 191.43 +/- 91.59 ml in G4. The mean placental circumference 58.40 +/- 4.78 cm in G1, 54.86 +/- 5.673 cm in G2, 51.49 +/- 7.540 cm in G3, 41.23 +/- 8.958 in G4. All the Hypertensive groups have shown a significant marked variation in placental parameters than normotensive pregnancies. Among the hypertensive group, morphometrical changes were more predictive in severe preeclampsia.

Background and objectives: Gestational Diabetes Mellitus is associated with derangement of hormones, metabolites, and growth factors in maternal and fetal circulation which may influence the development and function of the placenta.The aim of this study were to compare oxidative stress and antioxidant system markers in GDM patients and normal subjects, and to determine the relationship between oxidative stress and GDM Materials and Methods: the study comprised 96 placentas of which 48 from normal and 48 from gestational diabetes.All the placental samples were evaluated for the antioxidant status using biochemical and immunohistochemical markers, MDA, SOD and GPX.The data were analysed statistically using unpaired Student T-test.Results: The present study showed the significant increase in lipid peroxidation with MDA (p<0.0001) and GPX activity (p<0.0001)placental tissues of GDM than control confirms the oxidative stress in GDM.However SOD was found to be significantly reduced in GDM than control showed the overproduction of superoxide radicals and the compensatory mechanism taken by the placenta.The immunohistochemical stained slides showed low positivity (score 1+) with SOD and positivity (score 2+) in placental villi with GPX in GDM placental tissues.But both the markers expressed a stronger DAB reactivity in blood cells of fetal blood vessels and blood cells of intervillous (IV) or maternal space (score 2+).In control it was placid in placental villi (either score 1+ or 0) positivity in intervillous space blood cells and negative in fetal blood cells (score 0). Conclusion:From the present study, we conclude that oxidative stress occurs in Gestational Diabetes and antioxidant defense mechanisms are inadequate.Biochemical and immunohistochemical analysis of levels of MDA, SOD and GPX are higher in GDM compared to normal pregnancies and may be useful markers in GDM in controlling the diabetic milieu.

The elbow joint is a compound joint made of articulations in between the humerus, ulna and the radius. The coupling areas (joints) are of prime importance from the kinetic-biomechanical perspective and of potential inter-ethnic significance. These articulations can be affected by several pathologies that may require medical and surgical interference. This experimental analysis aims to infer data in relation to the morphometry of the proximal segment of the ulna and its articular surfaces represented by the greater sigmoid notch (trochlear notch) and lesser sigmoid notch (radial notch).A sample of fifty ulnae (n = 50, 27 right and 23 left) was studied in connection with; the surface area of the sigmoid notches (SA), weight of ulna, and the volume of proximal portion of ulna (including the olecranon process and reaching inferiorly to the lowest margin of the radial notch), the length of ulna (L). Longitudinal dimensional parameters were also studied including; the straight distance between the highest point (tip) of the olecranon and that of the coronoid process (OCD), and the mid-olecranon thickness in mediolateral (T1) and anteroposterior orientation (T2).It has been inferred that there were no significant differences in between right versus left ulnae and in relation to the majority of morphometric parameters with an exception for OCD (22.47 vs 20.75, p-value = 0.002). There was a positive correlation in between all the parameters, although the strongest associations were observed in between OCD, the area of the trochlear notch, and the weight of ulna.A precise conclusion was reached in relation to morphometry, volumetry and the pertinent biomechanics of the proximal segment of the ulna. Key findings are of value to biomedical engineers, medical professionals including orthopaedic surgeons and rheumatologists, evolutionary biologist, and physical anthropologist. Data from this study can be used to (reverse) engineer the perfect implant for the elbow joint.

Introduction: Pituitary gland is the master endocrine gland known for its cellular diversity.The different cells of pituitary will control different endocrine glands through their secretions.The differential cellular study of pituitary is important in understanding various diseases that result from hypo or hyper secretion.This study aims to observe various histological aspects of pituitary at different gestational ages. Materials and Methods:A total of 100 apparently normal dead aborted embryos and fetuses of both sexes of 12 to 40 weeks gestational age were utilised for the histological study.The pituitary glands were removed and subjected to routine Haematoxylin & Eosin procedure.The specimen were categorised and observed for histogenesis of pituitary at various gestational ages. Results and Conclusion:All the cell types of anterior lobe except lactotrophs are observed at 14 weeks of gestation.Incompletely formed portal vessels are also seen.At 19 weeks, acidophils predominate in lateral region whereas basophils predominated in middle region.At 24 weeks, the cells of anterior lobe are fully differentiated with the appearance of lactotrophs.Well developed portal vessels are observed.At term, acidophils are comparatively greater than basophils indicating probably lactotroph hyperplasia due to high maternal oestrogen levels.

Address for Correspondence: Ms. P. Sharmila Bhanu, Department of Anatomy, Narayana Medical College, Chinthareddy Palem, Nellore, Andhra Pradesh 524002, India. Mobile: +91-9441705457 Fax: +91-861-2317962 E-Mail: sharmilabp78@gmail.com Introduction: Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is an ever increasing threat in Indian women, is found up to 10% of the total pregnancies and is mainly due to diet, obesity and sedentary life style. Placenta, considered being the vital organ of intrauterine life, form the representation of whole pregnancy. The present study has undertaken to observe the morphological changes of the GDM and control placenta. Material and Methods: Total number of 96 placentas, out of which 48 are GDM and 48 from control were procured for the present study along with mother’s age, gestational age and baby’s weight. All samples were studied morphologically. Result: The morphological aspects of GDM were found be more significant when compared to normal. In GDM placentas, mean placental weight was 537.27±131.97 with a range of 330 to 890g, mean placental volume was 482.61±142.17 ml3 in GDM with a range of 144.12-700 ml3, and mean placental diameter was 168.2±13.23mm with a range of 147186 mm. Thickness in GDM was 23.69±5.08mm. The average number of placental cotyledons was 19.38±3.4 in GDM, which was significantly higher, revealed its excessiveness. In GDM feto-placental ratio calculated from dividing baby birth weight by placental weight was 5.96±1.06. Conclusion: Significant placental morphological changes of GDM observed in the present study may be considered as a clinical importance. The impact of these changes may reflect on the perinatal outcome of the pregnancy, resulting in macrosomia, congenital malformations and intrauterine growth retardation.

The width of the mouth, interalar width, bizygomatic width, and interpupillary distance were measured in edentulous patients. The widths varied widely, even when the population was separated into groups by sex and/or race. When mean values were studied, black men differed significantly from black women, white women, and white men in interalar and bizygomatic widths; white women differed from the other groups in all widths. No correlation was found between the widths for the population as a whole, nor when the population was further divided into race, sex, or group. When artificial teeth were chosen for eight randomly selected patients using a method recommended for each of the widths, the same mold was dictated by two methods for seven patients, and by three methods for five patients.

In positron emission tomography (PET) for breast, brain and small animal imaging, the spatial resolution of a PET detector is crucial to obtain high quality PET images. In this study, a PET detector for sub-millimeter spatial resolution imaging purpose was assembled using 4×4 pixels of a digital silicon photomultiplier (dSiPM, DPC-3200-22-44, Philips) coupled with a 15×15 LGSO array with BaSO4 reflector, and a 1 mm thick acrylic light guide for light distribution between the dSiPM pixels. The active area of each dSiPM pixel was 3.2×3.9 mm2 and the size of each LGSO scintillator element was 0.7×0.7×6 mm3. In this paper, we experimentally demonstrated the performance of the PET detector by measuring the energy resolution, 2D flood map, peak to valley (P/V) ratio, and coincidence resolving time (CRT). All measurements were performed at a temperature of 10±1 ℃. The average energy resolution was 15.6% (without correcting for saturation effects) at 511 keV and the best CRT was 242±5 ps. The 2D flood map obtained with an energy window of 400–600 keV demonstrated clear identification of all pixels, and the average P/V ratio of the X- and Y-directions were 7.31 and 7.81, respectively. This study demonstrated that the PET detector could be suitable for application in high resolution PET while achieving good timing resolution.

Early pregnancy probability (P16) in heifers is a trait of high economic value for beef cattle production. Early pregnancy is defined based on the conception and calving of a heifer given that the animal had entered the breeding season at about 16 months of age and is considered a strong predictor of puberty in Nellore cattle. The aim of this study was to identify polymorphisms in the protein phosphatase 3 – catalytic subunit, alpha isozyme (PPP3CA) and fatty acid-binding proteins 4 (FABP4) genes, which have been associated with P16. The exon regions of the candidate genes were sequenced in 380 heifers. Two polymorphisms were detected in PPP3CA and 13 in FABP4. A deletion (rs134413439) was identified in the FABP4 gene in all samples, which could be a variation that occurs across breeds since the reference genome is from a Hereford cow. Two SNPs in the FABP4 gene were associated with P16 after Bonferroni correction. However, none of the haplotypes exerted a significant effect (P > 0.05). This study showed that the PPP3CA and FABP4 genes are polymorphic in Nellore cattle. Furthermore, the FABP4 gene was found to be associated with early pregnancy in heifers, reinforcing the contribution of lipid metabolism to reproduction.

The objective of present study is to describe the prenatal histogenesis of human cerebellar cortex. The aim of this study is to demonstrate the various histological features of human foetal cerebellum in spontaneously aborted fetuses of different gestational ages for analyzing the cerebellar histology. Histogenesis of cerebellum is observed from 13 weeks to 36 weeks of gestational age by dividing the specimens into six gestational age groups (group A to group F). External granular layer is observed at 13 weeks of gestation and purkinje cell layer is arranged at 17 weeks as a multilayered and single layer at 36 weeks of gestation. The knowledge of cerebellar anatomy has a tremendous neurosurgical importance. Future investigations might involve evaluation of the cerebellum at other gestational ages. Keywords: Cerebellum, Histogenesis, Purkinje cell

Address for Correspondence: Ms. Sujatha Manupati, Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Anatomy, Sri Venkateswara Medical College, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh. India. Mobile No.: +919246943011 E-Mail: manupatisujatha@gmail.com *1 Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Anatomy, S.V. Medical College, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh, India. 2 Professor & Head, Department of Anatomy, S.V. Medical College,Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh, India. 3 Associate professor, Department of Forensic Medicine, RIMS Medical College, Kadapa, Andhra Pradesh, India. 4 Professor & Head, Dept of Anatomy, SVIMS, Sri Padmavathi Medical College for women, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh India. Introduction: Myocardial bridging is the term used when a segment of major epicardial coronary artery runs intramuscularly under the tunnel formed by fibers of myocardium that bridges instead of it’s normal or routine epicardial path. In the literature there are varying reports on clinical implications of myocardial bridges from protection against atherosclerosis to myocardial ischemia, as well as leading to infarction and sudden cardiac death. Materials and Methods: 150 adult formalin fixed human hearts which were available in the department of Anatomy and Forensic Medicine, S.V.Medical College, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh, India. These hearts were dissected and observed for the presence, location, type, number and direction of myocardial bridges and their association with coronary dominance. With the help of digital calipers morphometric parameters (length, width& thickness) of myocardial bridges and length of blood vessel underneath the myocardial bridge were measured, noted and photographs were taken. Results: The overall incidence of myocardial bridges was 20.6%( 31/150). Among these 18.6% (28/31) were on left anterior descending (LAD) artery and 2% (03/31) were on posterior interventricular (PIV) artery. The direction of muscle fibers in the bridges were oblique to the direction of the coronary vessels in majority of cases. Length, width and thickness of myocardial bridges were in the range of 12-69.7mm, 3.74-8.6mm and 1.3-3.87mm respectively. Conclusions: Myocardial bridges may be associated with wide range of clinical problems. Contraction of myocardial bridge may results in vascular compression and myocardial ischemia. Knowledge on morphology and morphometric details of myocardial bridges facilitates cardiologists in diagnosis, planning therapeutic strategies and prognostic predictions.

Address for Correspondence: Mrs. Sujatha Manupati, Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Anatomy, Sri Venkateswara Medical College, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh. India. Mobile No.: +919246943011 E-Mail: manupatisujatha@gmail.com Introduction: The segment of epicardial coronary artery that traverses intramurally through the myocardium and bridged by a bunch of cardiac muscle fibers is called tunneled artery or intramural artery. The band of cardiac muscle fibers passing over the tunneled artery segment is named as myocardial bridge. During angiography milking effect is observed during systole due to the external pressure of muscle fibers on the tunneled artery that leads to narrowing of vessel lumen and further ischemia. Materials & Methods: It is a prospective study performed from 20122015 in cardiac centers available around Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh, South India. A total number of 2015 adult patients who underwent diagnostic coronary angiography were evaluated to detect myocardial bridges. With the informed consent the relevant data was collected from the patients and analyzed. Results: The prevalence of myocardial bridges was 3.17%. Among the 2015 patients 70.7% are males and 29.2% are females. Among 64 myocardial bridge positive cases 62.5% were male and 37.5% were female patients. Regarding coronary dominance 84% were right dominant and 14.4% were left dominant and 1.6% are balanced. The percentage incidence of myocardial bridging according to dominance was 3.01% for right dominant patients, 4.12% for left dominant patients and 3.1% for balanced dominant patients. In all the myocardial bridge positive cases they were located on the left anterior descending artery (LAD). According to diagnosis the patients with normal coronaries were 22.6%, patients with MILD CAD were 17.9%, patients with single vessel disease were 23.4%, patients with two vessel disease were 14.7% and the patients with triple vessel disease were 21.3%. The 64 myocardial bridging cases were grouped in to three groups according to their age. Incidence of double bridges was observed in 3 cases of which 66.7% males & 33.3% in females. Conclusion: These results shows that Andhra Pradesh population are with high angiographic incidence of myocardial bridges (MB’s), when compared with other population in India. We observed more lengthy bridges which may cause luminal reduction of coronary vessel and myocardial ischemia (MI), we also observed higher incidence of MB’s in male patients but systolic luminal reduction is more in female patients then in males. These observations suggest that the risk of MI will be more for the female patients with MB’s.

There were many parameters to bring out the sex, ethnicity and race based on morphometry of skull. Cephalic index is one of the important parameter in sex determination and classification of human crania. In the present study, an attempt was made to report the sexual dimorphism in 100 human crania of known sex based on the cranial index. Maximum Cranial Breadth (MCB) and Maximum Cranial Length (MCL) were measured and the cranial index was calculated as per the formula. Descriptive statistics was applied to find the significance of the parameters in determining the sex. The mean maximum cranial breadth in female was 11.8±0.81 and in male was 12.2±0.68.The mean maximum cranial length in female was 16.4±0.69 and in male was 17.5±0.74.Considering the above parameters individually both of them were observed to be significant with p<0.05 based on student‘t-test’. Mean Cephalic Index (MCI) in female was 71.48±5.81 and male was 69.75±4.02 are statistically significant.These three variables were observed to discriminate both sexes by 85%. This indicates the importance of cephalic index as a suitable predictor of sexual dimorphism.

Variations in the arterial pattern of upper limb are of common observation during cadaveric dissections, surgical procedures and radiological imaging. The pattern of arterial variations and their relationship with neighboring structures is of clinical importance. Most of the arterial variations in the upper limb are of radial and ulnar arteries. Brachial artery variations and mid arm variations are rare. During routine dissection of an adult cadaver high bifurcation of brachial artery into a larger ulnar artery and a short trunk that further subdivided into profunda brachii and superficial radial arteries was observed in the right upper limb.

th January, 2012 During our routine dissection, agenesis of isthmus of thyroid gland with isolated lobes was observed in a female fetus at 36 weeks of gestational age. Crown- rump length, crown-heel length and weight of the fetus are less compared to the other fetuses at the same age group but weight of the thyroid including both the lobes is normal. We also observed there was a morph metric variation in each isolated lobe of the thyroid gland. Agenesis of isthmus of thyroid gland is rare in humans and especially in females, as reported in the several literatures. In our case study, we observed complete agenesis of isthmus at 36 weeks, aborted female fetus. It is necessary to perform a differential diagnosis against pathologies like thyroid nodule, primary carcinoma and neoplastic metastasis.

BACKGROUND:There is a relationship between the intrauterine development, pubertal and adulthood variations, anomalies, and pathology of ovaries. But the entire development spectrum of the ovaries from fetal to menopausal age has not been examined among Indian females. OBJECTIVES:This study was conducted with an objective to establish the morphological and morphometric development characteristics of ovaries in local population as a proxy for Indians. MATERIALS AND METHODS:Thirty ovaries from prenatal embryos and fetuses aged 6 weeks to 40 weeks and 50 postnatal ovaries up to 55 years of age were studied for morphology and morphometry, by doing dissection. RESULTS:Oval shape was predominant in prenatal ovaries (66.68%), followed by rod (20%), almond, and "S" shapes (6.66% each). Among the postnatal ovaries while almond shape accounted for 72%, the incidence of oval shape was 28%. There was a significant correlation between gestational age and weight of the ovaries both in prenatal (r = 0.56) and postnatal (r = 0.696) specimens studied. CONCLUSION:Variations in the morphological and morphometric development characteristics of ovaries are common. The findings of this study form an initial database for the local population which may be improved in the subsequent studies.