In the late 19th and early 20th centuries,the American society advocated the development and utilisation of natural resources.In this context,the national parks,as a using mode of the public lands that'locked in'natural resources and contradicted the development and utilisation tradition,were often questioned and challenged by supporters of the traditional utilitarian forces.In the view of the American social elites who supported the establishment of the national parks,the preserved'unparalleled landscapes'were a source of the national pride and highlighted the uniqueness of the United States.On the one hand,they constructed an image that the national parks were'useless lands'for the traditional ways of resource utilisation.On the other hand,they strongly stressed the national parks'economic,social cultural,scientific and educational functions and values,and the uniqueness of the national parks compared to other'American Commons'of this period.Consequently,they constructed a set of discourses to justify the establishment of the national parks.Such discourses not only followed the'landscape'concept embedded in romanticism and nationalism,but also catered to cultural needs of the American elite in the'post-frontier era'.At the same time,they explicated multiple values of the national parks as'resources'for the economic and social development of the United States.Overall,those discourses legitimised the role of the national parks in the American socio-economic system.The national parks eventually became widely accepted by the American people.
After the signing of the Treaty of Saigon in 1862,Emperor Tu Duc was dissatisfied with the terms of the territory cession and promptly dispatched envoys to France to seek its revision.In the face of the Western impact,Vietnam that believed it had quickly found the logic of the'treaty system'attempted to take advantage of signing a new treaty.Frace also responded by facing with this unconventional manoeuvre.It demonstrated its worldwide power during the journey of the Vietnamese mission to France and'politically educated'the Vietnamese mandarins in order to make them accept the rules of modern diplomacy and integrate Vietnam into the colonial world.Throughout this interaction between the two sides,it became evident that there was heterogeneity within the colonial policy.Phan Thanh Gian's Mission took France's financial woes as a breakthrough in negotiating the new treaty.Nevertheless,the options of Vietnam were limited by its historical experience with the previous tributary system when the negotiations actually began.Even Aubaret who was the sympathetic vietnamologist cannot truly assist the Nguyen Dynasty during the limited period of negotiations.The strong resistance of the French navy ultimately resulted in the failure of the revision of the treaty.
所谓文明,不论其词源如何,本意是指人类社会脱离了原始的蒙昧和野蛮状态而发展到一种高级水平.说某个人类社群进入文明社会,其根本内涵是指这个社群已演变成一种复杂的社会组织.学界论到的文明出现之标志,包括文字的诞生、青铜器的使用、城市的兴起、私有制的起源、阶级的形成、国家的产生等,都在一定程度上与"复杂的社会组织"相关.文字的诞生,在于复杂社会组织的成员之间、成员与组织之间、成员与外部人员之间需要交流,需要用可视形态将交流内容和结果固定下来,以便于记忆和履行.青铜器作为礼器使用时(如商朝),该"礼"一定施用于调整复杂社会组织的成员与成员之间、成员与组织之间的关系;青铜器作为某种标徽或象征使用时(如三星堆文物),是为了凝聚本族群认同,展示本组织的标识;而且,青铜的冶炼,青铜器的铸造,工序众多复杂,需要很多人参与和配合,只有在"复杂社会组织"内才能进行.城市兴起,其功用是为了将族群成员集结在一起,更好地开展成员间交往,更好地保护本族群成员;而且修建城市,其规划、设计、建造,也只能通过复杂社会组织集体完成.至于私有制的起源、阶级的形成,也只有在复杂社会里才会发生,并使得这个复杂社会更加复杂化.族群内矛盾激化,复杂社会组织必须用更强有力的公权来调节、消弭这些矛盾,这就促使国家机器设立,由此形成了公权与多数成员的对立,作为完整文明形态的国家就这样产生了.
In 1985,due to the deteriorating situation in South Africa and the increasing pressure of sanctions from the international community,the Thatcher Administration was forced to consider adjusting its'Contact and Dialogue'policy towards South Africa.In response,Foreign and Commonwealth Office suggested enhancing the credibility of the British policy and avoiding being isolated.Its central strategy was to defend Britian's fundamental interests through a common declaration with the European Community on South Africa,thereby resisting tougher Commonwealth sanctions.However,Thatcher opposed any form of economic sanctions.Accordingly,both sides stuck to their own views,making policy adjustment of Britain extremely difficult.After a series of games,Thatcher selectively accepted the Luxembourg Agreement of the European Community on the premise of balancing the demands of economic and political interests,maintaining the independence and flexibility of the British policy towards South Africa,and then made a strategic compromise at the Commonwealth Conference in Nassau.The adjustment of the Thatcher Administration's policy towards South Africa is the embodiment of the British tradition of pragmatic diplomacy,with its fundamental purpose to maximise the overall interests of the United Kingdom at the lowest cost.However,this policy in favour of the South African government in fact extended the life of apartheid in South Africa.
The theory of weather cycles has been an essential part of meteorology during different historical times.The periodicity theories,which were established on the basis of data tracing in Australia during the colonial era,represented ecological response of the public getting to learn the external world and serve production and life in a new environment.As a kind of colonial knowledge from the southern hemisphere,the long periodicity theories combining folk ecological wisdom and physical theory gradually developed into an important theoretical tool of modern meteorology,promoted the scientization of meteorology,and inspired the global meteorological research in the following decades.At the beginning of the theory creation,the meteorological prediction guided by the cycle theory caused great controversy,failed to pass the test within scientific community,and became an unresolved thought experiment.At the end of the 19 th century,the'grievances'between two Australian meteorologists,Henry Russell and Charles Egeson,reflected the rapid development and difficulties which were faced by the Australian meteorology during the period of international academic transformation.
