Native guar germ protein isolates (GGPI) were modified with atmospheric cold plasma (ACP at 20 kV) and superheated steam (SHS at 130 °C) for 5 or 10 min to produce a highly concentrated emulsion for a hybrid frozen dessert. SEM showed that 5 min of ACP increased surface roughness, while 10 min created larger cavities with uneven surfaces in GGPI powder. The BET analysis confirmed that extended SHS treatment caused agglomeration and reduced porosity and surface area. However, the ACP-10 min treated GGPI emulsion had the highest packing density and nearly uniform droplet sizes. All GGPI emulsions demonstrated pseudoplastic and weak frequency-dependent behaviour. The structural recovery rate of all GGPI emulsions was greater than 89%, indicating superior thixotropic behaviour. Oral tribology analysis revealed that the hybrid frozen dessert containing ACP-5 min treated GGPI exhibited friction factors comparable to those of the milk cream-based frozen dessert at varying sliding speeds.

Natural pigments are increasingly explored as clean-label colourants and bioactive ingredients for functional food applications. However, their wider use remains constrained by pigment-specific instability, poor aqueous dispersibility, limited bioaccessibility, and sensitivity to light, oxygen, heat, pH, moisture, and complex foodmatrix interactions. This review critically examines recent advances in encapsulation technologies for improving the stability, delivery, and application performance of natural pigments, including anthocyanins, carotenoids, chlorophylls, curcuminoids, betalains, and phycocyanin. The reviewed result indicates that effective pigment protection depends on the coordinated selection of pigment type, carrier structure, processing method, and target food matrix. Emulsion-based systems, Pickering emulsions, lipid carriers, liposomes, hydrogels, coacervates, colloidosomes, electrospun nanofibers, and crystalline carriers provide protection through distinct mechanisms, including interfacial barrier formation, reduced oxygen and light exposure, bilayer encapsulation, crosslinked network retention, reduced molecular mobility, and controlled dissolution. Processing technologies such as spray drying, freeze drying, ionotropic gelation, complex coacervation, electrospinning, and supercritical fluid processing are further evaluated with respect to structural control, scalability, and suitability for thermolabile pigments. The particular attention is given to emerging issues such as phycocyanin stabilization, betalain degradation during fermentation and storage, limited validation in real food matrices, and the need to link in vitro bioaccessibility with in vivo effectiveness. The present article provides an analytical and application-focused approach for choosing food-grade encapsulation methods that improve pigment stability, controlled release, bioaccessibility, and industrial relevance in functional food systems.

Proso millet flour (PMF) was treated with cold plasma (CP) or superheated steam (SS) for 5-20 min in order to evaluate its impact on anti-nutritional factors (ANFs), protein digestibility, bioactive compounds, structural changes, soluble protein, carbohydrate, pasting, and functional properties. Prolonged CP or SS treatment durations gradually reduced tannin in PMF. Meanwhile, CP treatment proved more efficient in reducing phytic acid in PMF. However, a maximum decline in saponin was observed after 20 min of SS, due to the thermal degradation of glucoside bonds. Furthermore, carbonyl content was found to be 40-fold higher in 10 min of SS treated PMF than control. At the same time, in vitro protein digestibility of PMF was improved after CP or SS treatment (except for 5 min). Furthermore, SS treated PMP (excluding 20 min) contained the higher free total polyphenol content, but reduced the bound polyphenol content. Shorter CP treatment durations elevated total flavonoid content and antioxidant activity in PMF. From FTIR spectrum, prolonged CP or SS exposure durations reduced hydrogen bond strength in N-H groups and generated carboxyl groups. Most importantly, CP treatment slightly improved soluble protein content, which could account for higher foaming capacity. Apart from water absorption capacity, SS treatment reduced the pasting and functional properties of PMF. Hence, a shorter CP duration can be beneficial in increasing PMF functionality and bioactive compounds. Meanwhile, SS treatment may be more effective at deteriorating heat-sensitive ANFs.

In-package cold plasma (ICP) is a widely used non-thermal method for microbial inactivation, but its potential for modifying food macromolecules remains largely unexplored. This study systematically evaluates the impact of different ICP treatment durations (1, 5, 10, and 20 min) on the structural, functional, and interfacial characteristics of soy protein isolate (SPI) to enhance its emulsifying performance. Among the treatments evaluated, a 5 min exposure produced the most desirable changes. This treatment induced partial unfolding of SPI through peptide bond cleavage. As a result, the surface hydrophobicity of 5 min ICP treated SPI (2406.15 f 47.42) increased significantly compared to untreated SPI (1638.90 f 45.04). The 5 min ICP treatment also induced significant structural alterations, including an increased random coil content and reduced alpha-helix and beta-sheet structures. Additionally, it significantly reduced the particle size (221.76 f 1.88 nm) compared to native SPI (246.16 f 2.66 nm) due to structural disruption. Moreover, ICP induced oxidation of amino acid residues increased the zeta potential (-36.82 f 0.64 mV) compared to native SPI (-30.66 f 0.53 mV). Collectively, these modifications resulted in smaller emulsion droplet size (2.79 f 0.78 mu m), lower creaming indices, and improved viscoelastic properties. However, shorter treatment (1 min) had negligible effects, while prolonged exposure (20 min) caused excessive oxidation and protein aggregation, compromising emulsion stability. These findings indicate that intermediate-duration ICP treatment improves the structural and functional properties of SPI, making it suitable for stabilizing Pickering emulsions in food and nutraceutical applications.

Bean proteins are valued in the food industry for their sustainability and functional diversity. This study investigates protein isolates from four high-altitude Himalayan beans-cranberry, hyacinth, brown kidney, and black turtle-evaluating their physicochemical, structural, thermal, molecular, nutritional, and functional properties across varying pH levels (3.0, 7.0, 9.0). Using response surface methodology, alkaline extraction parameters were optimized, yielding protein extraction efficiencies of 18.54-20.38% and recovery yields of 59.63-65.49% under optimal conditions (pH 10.0, 116 min extraction, 44 degrees C, and 14.24 mL/g solvent ratio). Among the beans studied, black turtle bean had the lowest protein content (23.44% db) and cranberry bean the highest (26.19% db). Hyacinth bean protein isolate (HBPI) displayed the highest protein concentration and, along with brown kidney (KBPI) and black turtle bean protein isolates (BBPI), showed superior amino acid profiles, with cysteine and methionine as limiting amino acids. At pH 3.0, all isolates reached peak hydrophobicity, zeta potential, and surface tension, with HBPI excelling in surface tension reduction and emulsion capacity despite its lower solubility and foaming ability. HBPI also showed a compact structure and a high denaturation temperature (91.07 degrees C). At pH 7.0, critical gelling concentrations (LGCs) showed enhanced efficacy, with CBPI and BBPI at 12% and HBPI and KBPI at 10%. FTIR and CD analyses indicated a dominant beta-structure in the Amide I region, suggesting structural stability. These findings enhance our understanding of high-altitude bean proteins, supporting their potential in food and industrial applications.

Interest in plant-derived bioactive peptides (BAPs) is increasing due to their potential therapeutic effects, low toxicity, abundance, scalability, and cost-effectiveness. These peptides can be obtained by hydrolyzing plant proteins from a diverse range of sources, including legumes, cereals, grains, oilseeds, and tubers. This review discusses the benefits of these peptides on human health, addressing current challenges in translating research into practical use. The structural aspects of peptides combating hypertension and diabetes, encompassing structure–activity relationship studies, in vitro and in vivo methodologies, and absorption pathways are also discussed. Additionally, it explores the molecular features, physicochemical properties, gastrointestinal fate, and biological activities of various plant-derived peptides, including their potential in reducing blood pressure and blood sugar. These peptides hold promise as therapeutic agents in functional foods, supplements, and pharmaceuticals, pending rigorous human clinical trials to ascertain efficacy and safety. Successful trials could position plant-derived peptides as innovative antihypertensive and antidiabetic agents.

Superheated steam (SHS) treatment offers a rapid and efficient approach for modifying biopolymers, minimizing oxidation and degradation compared to conventional heating methods. Guar germ protein isolates (GGPI), rich in essential amino acids, remain underexplored despite their nutritional potential. However, GGPI faces limitations in solubility, digestibility, and gelling ability. This study investigates the impact of SHS treatment on the nutritional, structural, functional, and rheological properties of GGPI at temperatures of 120, 130, and 140 degrees C for 5 and 10 min. SHS treatment significantly increased in-vitro protein digestibility up to 130 degrees C-10 min (89.08 %). However, prolonged exposure to higher temperatures led to a significant reduction in essential amino acids, accompanied by changes in carbonyl and disulfide content. At lower SHS temperatures, no apparent changes in band intensity of SDS-PAGE patterns were found. Also, non-significant differences in surface hydrophobicity and particle size variation suggested that larger aggregates of GGPI were not formed. Partial unfolding of GGPI was observed at lower SHS temperatures, as indicated by higher random coil structure. On the other hand, at higher SHS temperatures, reorganization of unfolded structure into compact structure occurred, as noted by a significant impact on beta-sheet structure (37.34-45.12 %). Furthermore, increasing SHS temperature and time significantly improved the solubility (5.99 %) and emulsifying capacity (4.14 %) of GGPI up to 130 degrees C-10 min. Broader particle size distribution profiles of GGPI after SHS treatment might have accounted for the non-significant variation in water absorption capacity (1.9-2.11 g/g) and foaming capacity. Simultaneously, GGPI treated at 120 degrees C for 10 min formed a weaker gel with frequency-dependent behavior. Conclusively, SHS treatment could be more effective for preprocessing GGPI or other plant proteins at temperatures ranging from 120 to 130 degrees C to enhance solubility, digestibility, and gelling ability. Limited oxidation at higher SHS temperature (140 degrees C) reduced essential amino acids but did not form larger aggregates, making it suitable for producing low viscous food items.

The impact of atmospheric cold plasma (ACP) on amino acids, nutritional, thermal, and functional properties, molecular interactions, and rheological behaviour of guar germ protein isolates (GGPI) was examined for 5 and 10 min at 10, 20, and 30 kV. A significant change in GGPI amino acid profile was observed after ACP treatment due to the modulation of thiol group reactivity, as supported by zeta-potential, carbonyl content, and sulfhydryl groups. The GGPI treated with 10 kV-10 min exhibited the highest in vitro protein digestibility and solubility. The thicker SDS-PAGE band intensity at 30 kV-10 min suggested protein-protein cross-linking, further supported by an increased beta-sheet structure (41.45 %), higher denaturation temperature (122.87 degrees C), and larger particle size. Except for 10 kV, prolonged exposure significantly reduced the water absorption and emulsion capacities of GGPI. However, the 10 kV-10 min treated GGPI showed highest foaming capacity (143.81 %), and enhanced G ' and G". Furthermore, prolonged exposure of GGPI at 10 and 30 kV improved viscosity but reduced at 20 kV. ACP-modified GGPI shows promise for applications such as in edible coating, nanoparticle fabrication, and encapsulation of bioactive compounds.

Proso millet proteins (PMP) can be used as an alternative to gluten-free protein sources to meet market demand. Due to its poor digestibility and functional properties, PMP commercial applications have become challenging. Hence, superheated steam (SHS) treatment was applied to PMP (at 130-140 degrees C for 3, 6, and 9 min), which led to a slight variation in essential amino acids over shorter treatment durations. Increased SHS treatment durations at 130 degrees C improved in vitro protein digestibility (90.52 %) by unfolding the native PMP structures supported by disulfide bonds and secondary structures (where alpha-helix and beta-sheet structures reduced). Apart from water absorption capacity, 130 degrees C-9 min treated PMP showed the highest improvement in functional properties. The 140 degrees C treated PMP for 6 and 9 min resulted in thinner SDS-PAGE band intensities, larger particle sizes, and compact structural orientation, potentially leading to decreased functional properties (due to the degradation of heat-sensitive amino acids, hydrogen bonds, covalent interactions and excessive oxidation). From the multivariate analysis, it is recommended that SHS treatment at 130 degrees C for 6-9 min can modify PMP and may be helpful in developing meat alternatives, emulsions, hybrid milk, and other beverages.

Bean proteins, known for their sustainability, versatility, and high nutritional value, represent a valuable yet underutilized resource, receiving less industrial attention compared to soy and pea proteins. This review examines the structural and molecular characteristics, functional properties, amino acid composition, nutritional value, antinutritional factors, and digestibility of bean proteins. Their applications in various food systems, including baked goods, juice and milk substitutes, meat alternatives, edible coatings, and 3D printing inks, are discussed. The physiological benefits of bean proteins, such as antidiabetic, cardioprotective, antioxidant, and neuroprotective effects, are also presented, highlighting their potential for promoting well-being. Our review emphasizes the diversity of bean proteins and highlights ultrasound as the most effective extraction method among available techniques. Beyond their physiological benefits, bean proteins significantly enhance the structural, technological, and nutritional properties of food systems. The functionality can be further improved through various modification techniques, thereby expanding their applicability in the food industry. While studies have explored the impact of bean protein structure on their nutritional and functional properties, further research is needed to investigate advanced modification techniques and the structure-function relationship. This will enhance the utilization of bean proteins in innovative and sustainable food applications.

This study investigates the potential of superheated steam (SS) as a rapid and sustainable method for synthesising millet starch citrates with improved physicochemical and functional properties. Millet starch was esterified with citric acid (CA) under varying SS conditions (160-180 degrees C, 15-45 min) to optimise the degree of substitution (DS) and evaluate its influence on starch functionality. A range of DS values (0.023 to 0.121) were achieved, with the highest DS observed at 170 degrees C for 45 min. Structural analysis using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy confirmed successful esterification, with the appearance of a new peak at 1735 cm(-1) indicating ester bond formation. X-ray diffraction showed a reduction in crystallinity with increasing DS, while polarised light microscopy and confocal scanning laser microscopy revealed alterations in molecular organisation. Scanning electron microscopy demonstrated minimal disruption to granule morphology. Contact angle measurements indicated increased hydrophobicity, with water contact angles rising from 29.63 degrees in native starch to 71.63 degrees in high DS samples. Additionally, a significant (p < 0.05) reduction in amylose content and paste viscosities was observed, correlating with improved resistance to gelatinisation and retrogradation. In vitro digestibility analysis showed a substantial increase in resistant starch content, from 18.69 % in native starch to 40.11 % in high DS samples. These findings highlight SS as an efficient and eco-friendly technology for producing starch citrates with tailored functionalities, particularly suited for low-glycaemic response and health-promoting food applications.

Plant-based foods are valuable sources of essential minerals and macronutrients. However, their bioavailability is significantly affected by anti-nutritional factors (ANFs), which can reduce nutrient intake, hinder digestion, and decrease metabolic utilization of feed. Hence, this review aims to provide comprehensive insight into various aspects of ANFs in food, including their background and interaction mechanisms with nutrients (mineral chelation, enzyme inhibition, and intestinal barrier disruption). The effectiveness of different conventional and novel technologies for reducing ANFs has been thoroughly discussed, and their limitations have been highlighted. For example, soaking typically reduces phytic acid content by 20-40 %, whereas germination and fermentation can achieve 40-80 % reduction. Extrusion and cold plasma have been reported to lower the contents of tannins and trypsin inhibitors by more than 80 % under optimized conditions. This study also explores the impact of ANFs on nutrient bioavailability and highlights dietary strategies and biological activities after the consumption of ANF-rich foods.

Plum kernels remain underutilized due to toxic cyanogenic glycosides. Detoxified plum kernel meal is a promising plant-based protein source; however, its extracted proteins exhibit limited techno-functionality, restricting their applications in food systems. This study investigates the effects of high-intensity ultrasound (HIUS) at varying durations (10, 20, 30, and 40 min) on the techno-functional, biochemical, structural, morphological, and thermal properties of detoxified plum kernel protein isolates (PKPI). Varying HIUS duration significantly (p < 0.05) enhanced solubility (1.08-fold), emulsifying capacity (1.21-fold), and foaming capacity (1.16-fold), with the most pronounced improvements observed in the PKPI sample treated at 30 mins (US-PKPI-30). Moderate HIUS treatment effectively maintained a balanced secondary structure of β-sheets (53.87 %), α-helix (9.08 %), and β-turns (16.87 %), optimizing flexibility and structural integrity. Structural changes and surface analysis indicated enhanced molecular flexibility due to HIUS treatment. US-PKPI-30 exhibited a ζ-potential of -18.3 mV, indicating improved dispersion and colloidal stability. Molecular weight distribution analysis showed that the primary structure of the protein remained intact after treatment. Particle size distribution and surface morphological analysis revealed reduced particle sizes, suggesting protein aggregate disruption. Detoxified plum kernel proteins are promising, and HIUS treatment could be an effective strategy for enhancing their techno-functionality as well as the utilization of plum processing waste.

Horse chestnut (Aesculus indica) is an underutilized nut, accounting for approximately 60 % of the total starch present in its seed. Horse chestnut has potentials as a source of commercially available starches since it is widely distributed in Asia, Japan, Europe, America and China with minimal input costs. As the major component of horse chestnut seeds, starch is considered as a cheap and sustainable carbohydrate source in comparison to other conventional sources. Herein, this review aims to highlight the composition, isolation methods, structural characteristics, functional properties and modifications as well as potential applications of horse chestnut starch. Horse chestnut starch has high amylose content (33.1 %) renders it a promising source of resistant and low digestible starch. The structural characteristics of horse chestnut starch differs from other common starches, influencing its swelling power, solubility, transparency, freeze-thaw stability, pasting, gelatinization and retrogradation. However, Horse chestnut starch exhibits distinctive structural profile with high short chains, which correlates with its pasting viscosity. To increase its versatility and applicability, horse chestnut starch has been modified by physical, chemical and enzymatic treatments. This review also provides a basis for utilizing horse chestnut starch in food and non-food fields. To expand its potential utilization, future research demands on horse chestnut starch are also discussed.

Moringa leaves, rich in functional proteins, may benefit from ball milling (BM) to enhance protein extraction and functionality through structural modification. BM for 3 h resulted in highest protein yield (180 %) and improved digestibility. Though 5 h treatment increased the extraction yield, it reduced protein purity. The BM significantly reduced β-sheet (51.5 to 42.1 %) and increased random coil structures (23.3 to 34.4 %), suggesting protein unfolding. Except at 5 h, increasing BM duration reduced the disulfide bonds, denaturation temperature, enthalpy, surface hydrophobicity, and particle sizes of moringa leaf protein concentrate (MLPC). Similarly, solubility, water holding capacity, and foaming capacity were also significantly improved in MLPC up to 3 h of BM. Correlation analysis indicated that BM duration significantly affected the essential amino acids, carbonyl content, sulfhydryl groups, and functional properties of MLPC. Conclusively, moderate BM duration (3 h) underscores its potential as a scalable pre-treatment for producing high-quality plant protein ingredients.

ABSTRACT In this study, atmospheric cold plasma (CP; voltage: 15–25 kV and time: 30–120 s) was applied to guar bean seeds (GBS) and then germinated for 5 days to understand the germination ability based on the germination parameters and chlorophyll content. After that, carbohydrate, protein, bioactive compounds, antinutritional factors, and in vitro protein digestibility of germinated GBS were analyzed. The results showed that CP treatment has significantly (p < 0.05) affected the germination parameters, majorly germination percentage, root length, and chlorophyll content of GBS. The CP‐pretreated (20 kV for 90 s) germinated samples (on the fifth day) had maximum germination ability and less antinutritional factors. Similarly, the CP‐pretreated germinated samples (15 and 20 kV for 90 s) showed higher in vitro protein digestibility and bioactive compounds than others. Unfortunately, higher applied voltage and duration negatively affected the germination process. From principal component analysis, medium‐intensity CP treatment conditions were more effective in accelerating the germination process of GBS.

Cereals and cereal processing byproducts have received wide attention in recent years due to the associated health benefits. Cereals are rich in bioactive compounds which have been directly linked to the prevention of different cancers and cardiovascular diseases and to the proper physiological functions in the human body. Cereal and cereal products are rich sources 286of biologically active compounds such as tocopherols, tocotrienols, dietary fiber, (arabinoxylans, Β-glucans, cellulose, lignin, and lignans), sterols, phenolic acids, vitamins, and minerals. Cereals are milled before processing and the rich byproducts have, however, remained unexplored and the extraction and re-processing of these physiologically beneficial components are, therefore, vital and need of the hour. Different extraction processes including solvent extraction, maceration, supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), etc., are widely used to fractionate the biologically active compounds. This chapter details different bioactive compounds in cereals and their byproducts, associated health benefits, and the extraction processes used.

Microbial contamination in animal-based foods is a significant global concern, impacting the food sector and public health. Cold plasma (CP) has recently emerged as a promising technique for microbial inactivation and shelf-life extension of animal-based foods. CP consists of ionised gas with molecular and sub-atomic elements and operates at or near room temperature, making it suitable for preserving heat-sensitive substances. It offers high microbial inactivation efficiency, minimal adverse effects, and environmental friendliness compared to chemical disinfectants. To address these challenges, we provide a thorough understanding of how these factors affect the efficacy of microbial inactivation while shedding light on its effects on quality parameters. Additionally, we provide a comprehensive overview of the fundamentals of plasma, including its composition, various plasma systems, and the underlying mechanisms of plasma inactivation, to help novice researchers with the necessary foundation to delve into the complexities of plasma-based technologies effectively to strengthen food safety. CP is effective against various microbes and their toxins, including bacteria, fungi, viruses, and spores. However, comparing the microbial reduction obtained in one CP system to others can be challenging for several reasons, such as diversity in system design and operating parameters, plasma chemistry and reactivity, microbial sensitivity, experimental conditions, and food matrix interactions.