The present study was conducted on placentomes of 31 pregnant buffaloes ranging from 38 to 243 days of gestation to explore the microscopic details of giant cells and their behavior in buffalo placentomes. Various histological and histochemical stains used in the study revealed its structural and chemical details. The study revealed that giant cells played a major role in transplacental transfer of nutrients and other metabolites required by the fetal and maternal tissues. High polysaccharide content and intense enzymatic reaction indicated high metabolic activity of the giant cells in the placenta. The migratory nature of giant cells observed in the present study revealed its role in transfer of metabolites. The cytoplasmic processes observed in the study indicated its fusion with the cryptal epithelium as a medium of transfer of metabolites and formation of multinucleated giant cells. Strong acid phosphates activity can be correlated with its erythrophagocytic nature as a medium of transfer of iron molecules to the developing fetus.

Phyto-bioenhancer is an agent of herbal origin, which is capable of enhancing bio-availability and bio-efficacy of a particular drug or nutrient with which it is combined, without any typical pharmacological activity of its own at the dose used. These phyto-bioenhancers reduce the dose, decrease the treatment duration and increase the recovery rate. They also reduce the drug resistance or related adverse reactions which have economical implications in human, livestock and pet medicine. The main mechanisms involved for these phyto-bioenhancers are related to drug absorption i.e. effect on solubility, drug efflux and transport proteins, increased permeability in gastrointestinal system and drug metabolism i.e. inhibition/induction of drug metabolizing enzymes and thermogenic effect. The concept of bioenhancer is to achieve better therapeutic response in appropriate dose using phytomolecules like ginger, caraway, aloe, quercetin, glycyrrhizin piperine, curcumin etc. The use of phyto-bioenhancer is the most reliable means for bioavailability enhancement because these are safe, non-toxic, economical, easily procured, non-addictive, pharmacologically inert and non-allergenic in nature etc. Phyto-bioenhancers are used for various categories of drug like neutraceuticals, antibiotics, antitubercular, anticancer and cardiovascular for immediate effects. Therefore, there is a need to carry out extensive research on these phyto-bioenhancer so that they could be utilized in the marketed formulation in future prospective. Researchers must solve some issues of drug toxicity to deliver a safe and effective dose of drugs to attain desired pharmacological response.

The present study was undertaken to explore the immunohistochemical localisation of TRPV6 calcium channels in rabbit gut epithelium that are actively involved in calcium absorption. To undertake the research, twelve apparently healthy adult female rabbits with a body weight between 1.0 to 1.5 kg were procured, acclimatised and divided into two groups: control and test. Both groups were kept on same feed along with exogenous calcium supplementation in test group animals only. The serum calcium level revealed that normally a high value of serum calcium is maintained in the rabbit as compared to other mammals, thus indicating that the homeostatic mechanism might be poorly developed. Immunohistochemistry and reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction analysis revealed that the caecum was the site of maximum calcium absorption in rabbit, followed by the duodenum and jejunum. The expression pattern of TRPV6 protein/mRNA was weaker in test group animals than in the control group, indicating that the channel was functional in low calcium concentration in the gut.

Female rabbits from the age of 9 weeks till age of maturity were reared in two separate groups under long (16L: 8D) and short (12L: 12D) photoperiods. Does reared under long photoperiod showed increased body weight and ovary weight body weight ratio as compared to does reared under short photoperiod. At 15 weeks of age Graafian follicles appeared for the first time in long photoperiod group while the same appeared in the short photoperiod group at 19 weeks of age. At pre-pubertal and pubertal age the serum concentration of FSH and LH were more in long photoperiod animals as compared to those of short photoperiod animals.

The present study was conducted on placentomes of 20 buffaloes (n=20) ranging from 38 to 243 days of gestation. Their gestational age was determined by measuring the curved crown rump length (CRL) of foetii using an inelastic thread as per formula given by Soliman (1975) in bovines. Depending on the CRL and estimated age of the foetuses, the samples were divided into 3 groups. The placental tissues fixed in 10% NBF were processed and stained accordingly. The present observation revealed that the cryptal epithelium was cuboidal during early and mid pregnancy but transformed to squamous during late pregnancy especially at the tip of the maternal septa. This reduction in size and nature of epithelium during late pregnancy was in order to shorten the distance between foetal and maternal tissue for substance exchange by diffusion. The trophoblastic epithelium transformed from cuboidal during early and mid pregnancy to stratified epithelium in the arcade region due to accumulation of binucleated giant cells that were involved in phagocytosis of extravasated erythrocytes in the arcade region. The phagocytosis released iron from the RBC that were probably being utilized by the developing fetus as very strong reaction for acid phosphatase was observed in the arcade region and iron in the form of fine granules were observed by special staining.

Ongoing pregnancy in ruminants requires a strong structural connective tissue framework and production of extracellular matrix that provides mechanical stability and compensates the higher demand for uterine tensile strength during gestation. It has been postulated that failure of collagen breakdown seems to be related to retention of fetal membranes, hence the present study was undertaken to elucidate the distribution patterns of connective tissue fibers in placentomes of buffalo throughout the gestation. On the maternal side at 3 cm CVRL (42 days) sub-epithelial collagen and reticular fibers were observed in the developing primary crypts. From 17 cm CVRL (105 days) onwards the collagen content of the septa started decreasing and were present only at the tip while the reticular fibers showed more compact arrangement throughout the septal length. On the fetal side sparse arrangement of collagen and reticular fibers were observed in the chorionic plate, primary and secondary villi at 13 cm CVRL (87 days) with more compact arrangement afterwards. At late pregnancy there was extensive ramification of villi with fine terminal branches and more compact arrangement of connective tissue fibers. The results suggested that in the maternal caruncles the collagen content decreased and reticular content increased with pregnancy while in the fetal cotyledons both the collagen and reticular fiber contents increased and showed more compact arrangement that provided mechanical stability throughout gestation.

The present study was conducted on the bursa of Fabricius of Khaki Campbell ducks from day old to 4 th week of age irrespective of sex. The organ was located on the dorsal aspect of cloaca and opened in to proctodeum. It was cylindrical to elongated structure and off white in colour. The bursal weight, length and width increased significantly with age. Histologically, four distinct layers were detected. The follicle associated epithelium was lined with a layer of cuboidal to tall columnar pseudostratified cells. Bursal follicle had cortex and medulla which contained lymphocytes. There was significant increase in the number of plicae and cortical lymphocyte diameter with advancing age however, the medullary lymphocytic diameter decreased insignificantly. Post natal development of bursa indicated the maturity of cellular morphology with the increment of age. The most predominant age for functional competency of bursa appeared in 4 th week in case of duck.

Yak and cattle are the species of different habitats, but are of the same genus Bos. In order to adapt to different habitats some changes may occur in cellular organizations, sweat gland morphology being one of the part of this cellular organization. The skin samples were collected from six adult nondescript male cattle and yak from five different anatomical regions viz., neck, dewlap, abdomen, back and prepuce. Sweat glands appeared tubular consisting of a secretary coil which was embedded in the dermis in cattle. In yak, the glands were saccular in the neck and dewlap regions and tubular in other regions. The sweat gland number (1729 +/- 3.44) in cattle was almost three times higher (P<0.01) than yak (615.82 +/- 3.44). Highest number of sweat gland population was found in back (1563.24 +/- 5.44) and lowest in abdomen (900.26 +/- 5.44) in both the species. Descending order of sweat gland number was detected in dewlap, neck and prepuce respectively in both the species. In cattle the sweat gland diameter was significantly (32.78 +/- 0.38 mu m) higher as compared to yak (27.68 +/- 0.38 im).The sweat gland number and nuclear diameter in cattle was more than yak. Acidophilic secretory granules of the glands were numerous in the supra-nuclear cytoplasm in case of cattle. These results suggest the hyper activity of sweat gland in controlling the thermo dynamics in cattle as compared to yak.

In the present study four distinct protein bands were identified from the collected serum from all age groups of duck from 1st week to 4th week of age. From the page analysis it revealed 86 KDa, 65 KDa, 45 KDa and 25 KDa bands against protein molecular weight marker in all age group of ducks. The highest molecular weight band 86 KDa represented duck IgM (H chain) and likewise the bands having molecular weight of 65, 45 and 25 KDa represented IgY (H chain), IgY (Fc H chain) and light chain of IgY, respectively in all age groups of duck. Immunoglobulin increased significantly up to 4th week of age and it was highly significant from week to week.

The present study was conducted on placenta of 15 buffaloes to report the gestational age at which the villous-crypt architecture and firm feto-maternal apposition is achieved. Primary crypts were observed in the maternal caruncle at 42 days of gestation which gave secondary branches from 53 days onwards. Tertiary crypt formation was observed from 69 days onwards with secondary villous formation at the same age. Tertiary villi were observed at 87 days of gestation with firm foeto-maternal apposition. The study revealed that the crypts developed in response to villous proliferation and were not preformed.

Interstitial cell of cajal (ICC) was detected using C-kit immunoreactivity in different regions of prenatal foetal intestine. The ICC was first detected as early as four months of foetal age. The ICC was bipolar to stellate shaped and mostly concentrated around myenteric plexus, innervating their fibers in the longitudinal and circular muscle layers. The number of ICC varied significantly in different regions of intestine. ICC at sub mucosal plexus was not detected in the small intestine but present in the large intestine. Highest population of ICC was detected at ceco-colic junction. We are the first worker to report the ontogenesis of ICC in prenatal bovine intestine. These results suggested the correlation of ICC related pathophysiology in adult.

The present study was conducted on placentomes of 20 buffaloes ranging from 38 to 243 days of gestation to elucidate the role of migrating giant cells during the entire gestation period. Apart from the epithelium, giant cells were also found in between the cryptal walls and chorionic villi. The migration was first evident at 17 cm CVRL (105 days of gestation) with maximum migration at 31 cm CVRL (143 days). The migration disappeared during late gestation. The giant cells were strongly PAS-positive with some of the migrating cells having Alcianophilic granules. The cytoplasmic processes attaching the cryptal multinucleated cells with the trophoblastic epithelium were well evident at 20 cm CVRL (119 days) indicating the secretory properties of the giant cells.

The thyroid gland is the first endocrine gland of the body to develop as a ventral-midline-endodermal diverticulum from the floor of the fore-gut at a level between the first and second pharyngeal arches. Rapid advances have been made in knowledge and understanding of thyroid in human (Fagman and Nilsson 2010) due to its functional importance. However, scanty information is available on development of thyroid in domestic animals especially buffalo, hence the present study was undertaken. The present study was conducted on buffalo fetuses (11) ranging from 5.2 to 65.0 cm curved crown rump length (CVRL) collected from abattoir. The fetal body was measured as a curved line in centimeter with a calibrated inelastic thread along the vertebral column between the most anterior part of frontal bone to the rump at ischiatic tuberosity and designated as curved crown rump length (CVRL) (Edward 1965). The approximate age of the fetuses was calculated by using following formula as derived by Soliman (1975). Y= 28.66 + 4.496 X (CVRL<20 cm) Y= 73.544 + 2.256 X (CVRL 3 20 cm) where Y is the age in days and X is the CVRL in centimeter. The thyroid gland was dissected out and fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin (10% NBF). The samples were processed for paraffin blocks preparation by acetone-benzene schedule and the sections of 5–7 μm were obtained on glass slides. These paraffin sections were stained with Haematoxylin and eosin for routine morphology (Luna 1968), Masson’s Trichrome for connective tissue (Luna 1968), Verhoeff’s stain for elastic fibres (Sheehan and Hrapchak 1973), Periodic acid Schiff (PAS) for neutral mucopolysaccharides and Alcian blue at pH 2.5 for acid mucopolysaccharides (Luna 1968). The thyroid primordium was observed at 5.2 cm CVRL (52 days) of gestation on the ventro-lateral aspect of trachea (Fig.1) and comprised undifferentiated mesenchymal cells and few blood vessels up to 13.7 cm CVRL (90 days) (Fig.2). The moderately PAS positive parenchyma was surrounded by developing capsule (Fig.3). Kay et al. (2007) also reported the location of thyroid immediately anterior to the trachea in human beings. At 18.5 cm CVRL (112 days) compact epithelial strands separated by loose connective tissue with few blood vessels were observed. Similar observations were made by El Sheikh et al. (1966) in camel. In the present study, the follicular arrangement began to appear in the developing thyroid at 20 cm CVRL (119 days) of gestation (Fig.4). The strongly PAS positive colloid also appeared in some of the follicles at this stage. Alwan (2009) reported the follicular development with colloid in sheep at 20 cm CVRL (75 days) while it appeared at 52 days of gestation in camel (El Sheikh et al. 1966). The collagen and reticular fibers in the capsule and h-stroma increased with advancing gestation. The developing follicles were usually lined by simple cuboidal epithelium with large and centrally placed nuclei (Fig.5). Titlbach et al. (1987) reported cuboidal to columnar epithelium in developing cat thyroid. Similar findings were observed by El sheikh et al. (1966) in camel and Alwan (2009) in sheep. However in the present study, no change was observed in the follicular lining epithelium during the entire period. The large irregular colloid filled follicles lined with stratified epithelium that appeared to be ultimobronchial follicles were observed in the developing thyroid at 25 to 28 cm CVRL (130–137 days) (Fig.6). Sayed et al. also (2005) observed remnants of ultimo-bronchial in the thyroid gland of buffalo. Throughout the period of study, follicles were observed to be large in centre and small towards the sub capsular area. The capsule was moderate to strongly positive for acid mucopolysaccharides (Fig.7). The follicular epithelium showed mixed reaction for mucopolysaccharides. Similar findings were observed by El sheikh et al. (1966) in camel. Present address: 1Assistant Professor (e mail: rajesh.ranjan837@gmail.com), BSCVM, Jhunjhunu Rajasthan. 2Assistant Professor, Apollo Veterinary College, Jaipur. 3Associate Professor (e mail: singhopinder68@gmail.com), 4Associate Professor-cum-Head (e mail: bansal.neelam @rediffmail.com), Department of Veterinary Anatomy, GADVASU, Ludhiana.