Histamine is a significant food quality, safety, and trade issue in the fisheries sector. In the absence of adequate proficiency testing for histamine in India, it was important to organize a proficiency testing (PT) program among 22 food analytical laboratories for the external assessment of proficiency of the laboratories following ISO 17043:2010 and ISO 13528:2015. The test item (fish) prepared was sufficiently homogenous and stable for the entire duration of the PT program. The Grubbs test employed on the data showed the absence of any outlier result in the present testing scheme. The assigned value of 45.31 mg kg-1 was determined using the ‘consensus approach’ with a standard uncertainty of 1.33 mg kg-1. The robust standard deviation value was 5.02 mg kg-1. The z score for the participant results varied from -1.96 to +1.47, implying that the analytical performance of the participant laboratories was in agreement with the criteria mentioned in ISO 17043:2010. The HorRat value of 1.13, lay between the acceptable range of 0.5-2.0. The distribution of the results as depicted by the kernel density plot revealed a fairly normal distribution of the participants. All the participant laboratories were able to satisfy the proficiency testing requirements, as implied by the z score- -1.96 to +1.47. Further, proficiency testing can be carried out at various analyte levels and other matrices of commercial importance to allow for effective quality assurance.

Antibiotic resistance is one of the major concern for rapidly growing food sectors including shrimp aquaculture. A total of 2304 heterotrophic bacteria were isolated, categorized and screened for antibiotic resistance. Identification by conventional and molecular methods confirmed the presence of sixteen bacterial genera with the predominance of Vibrio sp. (38.54 %), Bacillus sp. (19.79 %), Tenacibaculum sp. (6.46 %), Halomonas sp. (6.03 %) etc. in the shrimp ponds. The isolates showed highest resistance to oxytetracycline (Vibrio sp. 79.3 %), followed by ciprofloxacin & co-trimoxazole (Exiguobacterium sp. 66.66 %) and chloramphenicol & erythromycin (Microbacterium sp. 50 % & 66.7 %). Overall resistance by all bacteria was highest for oxytetracycline (22 %). Among different bacterial isolates, majority of Vibrio sp. exhibited resistance to all the five antibiotics that varied from 1.4 % to 87.5 % from all the sampling sites (A to L). Among different antibiotic resistant genes (ARGs) screened by PCR, the most prevalent was tetA (44 %) followed sul1 (11.8 %). Vibrio sp. and Bacillus sp. showed the presence of all screened ARGs. Shrimp aquaculture ponds harboured antibiotic resistant bacteria and act as a main reservoir of ARGs.

Selecting the right drying methods is crucial to maximize the potential use of seaweeds in nutraceuticals and functional foods. Traditional drying techniques are being replaced by innovative methods that enhance efficiency, consistency, and product quality. This study evaluated the effect of infrared (IR) drying with conventional oven drying on the phytochemical composition of Turbinaria conoides in an untargeted metabolomics approach. Untargeted metabolomics using LC-HRMS, and chemometrics analysis effectively highlighted the impact of the two drying methods on the chemical composition of the seaweed. IR drying, in particular, demonstrated a 75 % reduction in drying time compared to electrical oven drying, emphasizing its efficiency. A higher drying rate was observed for IR drying at the beginning, with a gradual reduction. Except for crude protein (%), dried seaweed samples from the two drying techniques showed no significant difference in component analysis and antioxidant assays. However, metabolite profiling and chemometrics analysis revealed higher batch-to-batch variations in the oven drying. The impact on the relative abundance of identified metabolites indicated that IR drying particularly conserved higher mean levels of fatty acids and phytosterols. The study shows that the selection of drying methods critically affects the metabolite profile of the final product.

Background Emergence and dissemination of antibiotic resistance is one of the major risks associated with the rampant usage of antibiotics in food-producing animals including aquaculture. Objective To determine Epidemiological Cut-OFF (ECOFF) values of heterotrophic bacterial populations from shrimp culture environments against five different antibiotics Methods In this present study, bacterial samples were isolated from Penaeus vannamei culture environment in different locations of Andhra Pradesh, which is the aquaculture hub of India. The bacterial isolates were assessed for antibiotic resistance towards five antibiotics belonging to different classes (oxytetracycline, chloramphenicol, erythromycin, ciprofloxacin, and co-trimoxazole) by the disc diffusion method. Determination of Epidemiological Cut-OFF (ECOFF) values and analysis by employing normalized resistance interpretation (NRI) was carried out. Results The most dominant bacterial populations from shrimp culture were Vibrio spp. (pathogenic bacteria) followed by Bacillus spp. (probiotic bacteria). The bacterial isolates showed highest resistance towards oxytetracycline (overall 23.38%) and in location L6 (59.4%) followed by co-trimoxazole (31.1%). ECOFF values calculated by employing NRI showed that the disc diffusion data were distributed in a normalized manner. The maximum ECOFF value was obtained for ciprofloxacin (23.32 mm), while the minimum value was observed for oxytetracycline (9.05 mm). The antibiotic resistant phenotypes showed that the majority of the heterotrophic bacterial isolates (>60%) belonged to the non-wild type phenotype and primarily towards oxytetracycline (90%). Conclusion The presence of non-wild antibiotic-resistant phenotypes of heterotrophic bacterial populations (which include not only pathogenic bacteria but also probiotic bacteria) indicates that shrimp culture ponds may be a reservoir for drug-resistant bacteria and there is a greater risk associated with transmission of resistant genes across bacterial flora. Highlights NRI analysis of antibiotic disc diffusion data of heterotrophic bacterial populations in shrimp aquaculture environments revealed that majority of them belonged to non-wild type (90%) paticularly to oxytetracycline in comparison to other studied antibiotics (chloramphenicol, erythromycin, ciprofloxacin and co-trimoxazole).

Background: Aquaculture water plays an important role in the dissemination of antibiotic-resistant bacteria during harvest of shrimps. Mitigation of bacteria through discharge is essential to prevent dissemination downstream. Chemical disinfection of culture water is feasible compared to other methods of bacterial inactivation. Objective: To study the effect of different disinfectant agent's viz., chlorine, Fenton's reagent, and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) on inactivation of bacteria from shrimp pond water. Methods: The water samples were subjected to treatment with various concentrations of chlorine (0.0, 1.0, 2.5, 5.0, and 10.0 mg L-1), Fenton's reagent (1:10 mM ratio of Fe2+:H2O2; 2:20, 3:30, 4:40, 5:50) and H2O2 (20, 30, 40, and 50 mM) for different time durations (5, 15, 30, and 60 min). Results: The results indicated that all the disinfecting agents inactivated both the total heterotrophic bacteria and tetracycline-resistant bacteria with increased concentrations and time. At the end of 60 min treatment with chlorination (2.5 mg Cl-2 L-1), Fenton's reagent (2 mM Fe2+ + 20 mM H2O2), and H2O2 (50 mM H2O2), the total heterotrophic bacterial count in the water samples gradually decreased by 2.35, 2.65, and 1.38 Log(10) CFU mL(-1), and tetracycline-resistant bacterial count reduced by 1.57, 1.66, and 1.43 Log(10) CFU mL(-1,) respectively, from initial bacterial load. Conclusion: The study revealed that disinfection agents can be successfully employed in the inactivation of antibiotic-resistant bacteria discharged through aquaculture water. Among three disinfection agents, Fenton's reagent has been found effective in inhibiting both heterotrophic bacteria and tetracycline-resistant bacteria from water samples. Highlights: Bacterial inactivation studies were carried with chlorination, Fenton's reagent, and hydrogen peroxide. The highest reduction in Heterotrophic Plate Count (HPC) (2.65 Log) and tetracycline-resistant count (1.66 Log) was noticed in the water samples treated with Fenton's reagent. The use of disinfection agents effectively mitigates antibiotic-resistant bacteria from aquaculture wastewater.

Seventh pandemic Vibrio choleare O1 El Tor strain is responsible for the on-going pandemic outbreak of cholera globally. This strain evolved from non-pathogenic V. cholerae by acquiring seventh pandemic gene (VC 2346), pandemic Islands (VSP1 and VSP2), pathogenicity islands (VP1 and VP2) and CTX prophage region. The cholera toxin production is mainly attributed to the presence of ctx gene in these strains. However, several variants of this strain emerged as hybrid strains or atypical strains. The present study aimed to assess the aquatic environment of Cochin, India, over a period of 5 years for the emergence of multidrug resistant V. cholerae and its similarity with seventh pandemic strain. The continuous surveillance and monitoring resulted in the isolation of ctx negative, O1 positive V. cholerae isolate (VC6) from coastal water, Cochin, Kerala. The isolate possessed the biotype specific O1 El Tor tcpA gene and lacked other biotype specific ctx, zot, ace and rst genes. Whole genome analysis revealed the isolate belongs to pandemic sequence type (ST) 69 with the possession of pandemic VC2346 gene, pathogenic island VPI1, VPI2, and pandemic island VSP1 and VSP2. The isolate possessed several insertion sequences and the SXT/R391 family related Integrative Conjugative Elements (ICEs). In addition to this, the isolate genome carried virulence genes such as VgrG, mshA, ompT, toxR, ompU, rtxA, als, VasX, makA, and hlyA and antimicrobial resistance genes such as gyrA, dfrA1, strB, parE, sul2, parC, strA, VC1786ICE9-floR, and catB9. Moreover, the phylogenetic analysis suggests that the isolate genome is more closely related to seventh pandemic V. cholerae O1 N16961 strain. This study reports the first incidence of environmental ctx negative seventh pandemic V. choleare O1 El Tor isolate, globally and its presence in the aquatic system likely to induce toxicity in terms of public health point of view. The presence of this isolate in the aquatic environment warns the strict implementation of the epidemiological surveillance on the occurrence of emerging strains and the execution of flagship program for the judicious use of antibiotics in the aquatic ecosystem.

Seaweeds are an excellent source of unique antioxidant phytochemicals, dietary fibres, essential amino acids, vitamins, polyunsaturated fatty acids and minerals. The presence of such structurally diverse and high value bioactive compounds has led to popularization of seaweed as functional food ingredient in global health supplement market. India, with a long coastline of 8100 km and exclusive economic zone of 2.17 million km2, is rich in diverse seaweed resources belonging to almost 700 species. However, food and nutraceutical application of Indian seaweed is highly constrained. Apart from Kappaphycus alvarezii, there is no systematic commercial cultivation of seaweed in India. The regulatory framework for use of seaweed as food is still developing and consumer acceptance is still low. However, there is a timely and renewed interest from different government agencies and research organisations to develop a thriving food and nutraceutical industry using India’s vast seaweed resources. The review briefly describes the nutritional and functional food potential of the seaweed and goes on to discuss the scope of seaweed utilization in food and nutraceutical industry in India. Further, the review has identified the regulatory challenges and quality control requirements for use of seaweeds in food and nutraceuticals.

Biscuits are a popular snack option consumed and appreciated across the globe due to their sensory attributes, long shelf life, and convenience. These products have their niche and are available in an array of tastes and flavours. An attempt was made to develop nutrient-rich spiced-shrimp fortified biscuits and assess the effect of the spiced-shrimp mix (SSM) (15-20 %) on the nutritional, physical, and sensorial attributes. Incorporation of the SSM into biscuits enhanced the nutritional profile of the biscuits. Inclusion caused a significant increase in the protein and mineral content of the biscuits. The water activity values of SSM biscuits ranged from 0.37-0.40. The SSM biscuits were thinner and lighter in comparison to the control ones. Further, a decrease in lightness (L*) value and an increase in redness value (a*) were observed upon supplementation with SSM. SSM-supplemented biscuits were preferred by sensory panellists, in comparison to control ones. The overall likeability of the supplemented biscuits lay in the `like moderately to like very much' range of the 9-point Hedonic rating scale. The inclusion aided in the development of biscuits that could bestow consumers with good nutrition along with a spicy-delectable flavour.

Salubriousness, sustainability, low environmental footprint, and low production cost make seaweed an exciting food source for meeting food security and nutritional challenges. Seaweeds are increasingly being utilized in various food systems to avail dietary benefits for human health. The supplementation of seaweed with foods imparts its nutritional, techno-functional, and sensory functionalities to the food product. Thus, seaweeds present an interesting prospect to design tailor-made novel food products which are healthy, palatable, and at the same time 'convenience food'. The utilization of seaweeds for the development of food products is an excellent opportunity for food scientists, technologists, and phycologists for optimal exploitation of this food resource. The appropriate usage of seaweed in food systems could possibly give rise to a novel segment of seaweed-based composite/hybrid health foods. The review briefly summarises the trend and opportunities of seaweed utilization in functional food systems and the modifications occurring in food products upon supplementation with seaweed. Further, the review also discusses food safety concerns such as the presence of toxins, microplastics, heavy metals, and micropollutants in seaweed and challenges in adoption due to neophobia.

Biotoxins in aquatic ecosystem have major implications in both aquatic and human health. More than 100 known species of marine algae are harmful. Major 5 groups of biotoxins have been classified till date but the advent of climate change across globe results in various changes in their type and congeners. Several biotic and abiotic factors along with coastal eutrophication and seasonal upwelling enhance the blooming of HABs, due to the abundance of high nutrient contents along with regional warming. HABs are responsible for the production of biotoxins via consumption contaminated bivalve mollusks (PSP and DSP) and large predatory reef fishes (ciguatoxin). This opens up immense research opportunities in the characterization of the toxin produced by the HABs. Several reports are available suggesting that HABs are spatially and temporally distributed causing morbidity and death in marine organisms. Analysis of biotoxins has been up trended with latest technologies but still MBA remains legal as per regulatory guidelines. This chapter aims to focus on different types of biotoxins produced, several factors affecting its emergence in aquatic ecosystems due to climate change and their analysis.

Indian mackerel, Rastrelliger kanagurta is one of the most preferred fatty fish; however, economical preservation of fatty fishes is least documented in India. Saturated brine (23%) fermentation of Indian mackerel was studied for 120 days. Increment of lipid (2.25%), reduction of protein (5%) and salt content of 14%-15% with pH of around 6.0 was observed. Hardness fluctuated initially but stabilized at maturation. Fermentation imparted pleasant aroma to the product with minimal fat oxidation. Total plate count ranged from 3.80 to 5.44 log cfu/g. Coliforms and Escherichia coli were <1.8 MPN/g in final product. The product was stable at ambient condition under 95% vacuum in retortable pouch throughout the storage period (30 days). Botulinum toxin was examined and found absent in the analyzed samples. Sensory score indicated high acceptance of the product. Thus, the study illustrated that saturated brine fermentation preserves fatty fish adequately, producing safe and healthy fermented fish product with enhanced shelflife. Practical applications Indian mackerel being a fatty fish is prone to quick oxidation and spoilage; hence, a cost-effective preservation technique is required. Saturated brine fermented Indian mackerel has benefits of enhanced taste and aroma with minimal oxidation of the product. This preservation technique induces the product to remain stable at ambient condition with added shelflife owing to reduced pH and water activity. The preservation process of saturated brine fermentation acts as a value addition to Indian mackerel as it develops the product with similar attributes of lona ilish, a popular salt-fermented fish product in North-East India. This product can be economically adopted by fisher folks, self-help groups, and several other communities. This product can help to improve food and nutritional security in rural areas.

Laboratory-based quality checks, although accurate, are often time consuming and expensive and can only be performed by trained scientific personnel, which is a major drawback in a fast-moving supply chain of perishable food commodities. Vibrational spectroscopy is a proven technique for the non-destructive and rapid measurement of food quality and authenticity. Table-top vibrational spectroscopy equipment such as Fourier transform infrared, near-infrared and Raman spectrometers are already used widely for food authentication and quality analysis. However, recent advances in miniaturized sensors supported with artificial intelligence (AI) and the internet of things (IoT) might take the technique out of the laboratory and into the hands of food processors, farmers and consumers. In this chapter, the principle of food authenticity testing using miniature spectrometers is described and several chemometric data analysis tools, software and machine learning algorithms that can potentially be used or are being used for food authenticity testing using miniature vibrational spectroscopy devices are discussed. A summary of commercially available portable miniature spectrometers for food testing is given and major start-up initiatives that use miniature vibrational spectroscopy sensors and AI for food analysis are presented. Finally, an overview of the application of various miniature and hand-held spectroscopy devices and sensors for food authenticity testing is given.

Shidal is a traditionally bio-processed fermented fishery product produced from minor carps particularly, Puntius sp. It plays a significant role in the diet of North-Eastern people in India. In Tripura and other North-Eastern states, shidal is consumed as health food by general public. Hygienic processing of shidal has received more attention in recent years as the number of consumers and demand for superior quality shidal is increasing. The study was undertaken in 14 dry fish markets from 4 districts of Tripura through market survey and personal interview to identify key challenges associated with processing of shidal. Data was collected from a total of 50 randomly selected respondents from commercial shidal processors (n=10), household shidal processors (n=10), retailers (n=20) and local vendors (n=10). It was found that for commercial shidal processors, supply of poor quality raw materials and lack of skilled workers were the major issues. In case of household processors, lack of adequate infrastructure and breakage of earthen pots were the main issues; whereas, for retailers and street vendors lack of proper packaging system was the main issue. Thus, the challenges in shidal processing were recorded and solutions are suggested which could help the policy makers to recommend guidelines for hygienic handling and processing of shidal.

Shidal is a popular and widely consumed fermented fish product especially in North-Eastern part of India. Fermented fish products are liable to get contaminated with various human health hazards, biological as well as chemical during handling and marketing. Use of improper packaging material could cause unintentional adulteration of shidal which can lead to deterioration of shidal quality. Therefore, this study was aimed at identification of appropriate packaging material which is significant for food safety and hygienic marketing of shidal. The study was conducted at ambient conditions with three packaging materials such as retort pouch, polyester-polyethylene laminate and polyethylene pouch, respectively against a control. Quality indices such as pH, water activity (a w ), Free fatty acids (FFA), Peroxide value (PV), Total volatile base nitrogen (TVBN) and Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) were analyzed. On 90th day of study, pH, a w and microbial load in shidal packed with retort pouch was recorded as 6.05, 0.85 and 6.08 log cfu/g, respectively. The results demonstrated that retort pouch could be considered as the appropriate packaging material for shidal due to its ability to preserve desirable biochemical and microbial qualities of shidal to a better extend as compared to other two packaging materials.

Ngari is a popular ethnic fermented fish product from North-Eastern India. It is consumed after heat process either as a part of regular meal or as a condiment. However, there is no adequate knowledge on the digestion of ngari and the bioactive potential of the digest. The present study was aimed to evaluate the effect of different heat processes viz., air frying, roasting and sauteing on the chemical attributes and in-vitro digestion characteristics of ngari with reference to digestibility and antioxidant potential. The different heat processes significantly increased the dry matter content, thereby altering the proximate composition of the ngari. Nutritional analyses revealed that the highest value of protein is in air fried ngari (44.14%), while maximum fat in sauteed ngari (27.57%). Fatty acids analysis showed that palmitic, oleic and linoleic acid were the major fatty acids present in ngari irrespective of different heat processing. Antioxidant potential of ngari was significantly influenced by heating processes and digestion methods (pepsin or pepsin-cum-pancreatin). Heat processes significantly reduced DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) and metal chelating activity, while increasing the reducing power of the nagri. Study on peptide released during digestion by SDS-PAGE (Sodium lauryl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis) showed that pepsin digestion led to formation of low molecular weight peptides (14-66 kDa). Subsequently, the pepsin-cum-pancreatin digestion degraded the relatively larger peptides into further smaller ones. The different heat processes enhanced the sensory appeal of the product without exerting any negative influence on its digestibility and bioactive properties.

Effect of different concentrations (0 % control, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7%) of pulp and paper mill effluent selected on the basis of 96 hours LC50 test (8%), on certain blood parameters in Cyprinus carpio was evaluated after exposure for 7, 15 & 30 days. The hematological parameters studied include hemoglobin concentration, total erythrocytes count, total leucocytes count, packed cell volume, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, mean corpuscles volume, mean corpuscular hemoglobin and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration. Physico-chemical parameters i.e. pH, temperature, conductivity, total dissolved solids and dissolved Oxygen in diluted effluent were also recorded. Decreasing trend was observed in hemoglobin concentration, mean corpuscular hemoglobin and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration after an initial increase. Decreasing trend in total erythrocytes count and increasing trend in total leucocytes count, packed cell volume, erythrocyte sedimentation rate and mean corpuscles volume were recorded as concentration of effluent and duration of exposure increased. Minute fluctuations were observed in pH and temperature, and conductivity, total dissolved solids and dissolved oxygen of diluted effluent used during the study.

Fermented fish products are very popular in NorthEast region of India because of its unique taste and flavour. Two popular products, puthi shidal and phasa shidal, from Tripura were analyzed for biogenic amines, toxic heavy metals and foodborne micro-organisms of public health significance viz., Salmonella, E. coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Biogenic amines were detected by HPLC with UV-VIS detector using gradient elution method. Highest concentration of histamine, cadaverine and putrescine were detected in puthi shidal collected from Nutanbazar with a value of 118.18 +/- 1.78 ppm, 380.26 +/- 2.15 ppm and 141.87 +/- 1.20 ppm respectively. Spermidine and spermine were detected to be in the range of 21.38 +/- 0.88 - 41.89 +/- 0.83 ppm and 47.99 +/- 0.65 - 124.50 +/- 0.87 ppm respectively which was comparatively at lower concentration. Arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd) mercury (Hg) and lead (Pb) were determined using ICP-OES. The concentrations of heavy metals detected were within maximum permissible limit. Arsenic concentration of 2.65 +/- 0.02 ppm was recorded as maximum level in puthi shidal from Gulbazar (West Tripura district). Shidal samples are found to be free from pathogen like Salmonella and E. coli. The study indicates that the fermented fish products are free from heavy metal contaminations. Pathogen free fermented fish products are safe to consume. The study further revealed the need for standard production method in order to achieve uniform sensory attributes in the products including the control on histamine formation.

Seaweeds present a promising option for inclusion in the human diet through supplementation in various food systems. Sea grapes (Caulerpa racemosa), a common tropical green seaweed, has immense nutritional potential. An attempt was made to utilize the health benefits of sea grapes in human diet via biscuit as carrying medium. The effect of C. racemosa incorporation on nutritional, physical, anti-oxidative and sensorial characteristics of biscuits was assessed. Functional properties of seaweed-flour mix along with the electrophoretic pattern of dough were evaluated. Caulerpa racemosa addition increased water and oil absorption capacity of flour mix. Likewise, increase was noticed in solvent retention capacities (sodium carbonate, lactic acid, and sucrose) of flour mix. Inclusion of C. racemosa in biscuit enhanced the nutritive potential. Protein and fiber content of biscuits increased with rising level of C. racemosa incorporation. With increase in the concentration of seaweed in biscuits, the phenolic content and anti-oxidant activities (DPPH, ABTS, H2O2 radical scavenging activity and ferric reducing anti-oxidant power) increased. The sensory rating of biscuits varied from “neither like nor dislike” to “like slightly” on 9-point Hedonic scale. The study demonstrated the positive nutritional effect of C. racemosa inclusion in biscuits. Further, the health benefits of different seaweeds can be explored via incorporation in various other food systems. This could give rise to new and significant segment of health foods—“composite seaweed food products.”